Grade 2 Study Course material 2008

Section A: Prayer

a) President Ikeda’s lecture on “THE OPENING OF THE EYES” CHAPTER 16

Lecture

Difficulties make us stronger. Great hardships strengthen our faith. If we keep challenging obstacles and forging strong, invincible faith, we can bring forth the state of Buddhahood in our lives.

Those who continue struggling valiantly with the heart of a lion king, even when assailed by monumental challenges, will definitely attain Buddhahood. The essence of Nichiren Daishonin’s Buddhism is that “faith leads directly to enlightenment.”
The kind of faith indicated here is deep faith that believes in the existence of the Buddha nature in our own lives and those of others. This is extremely important. At the same time, and equally crucial, it refers to steadfast faith that remains unwavering no matter what happens, and strong faith that will not be defeated by any kind of devilish function. Whether or not we can attain Buddhahood hinges on the strength of our faith.

“The Opening of the Eyes” contains the following famous passage, which explains the profound principle that “faith leads directly to enlightenment”:

No matter what painful trials we encounter, we must not harbour doubts in our hearts. Nor should we be discouraged or succumb to complaint if we don’t enjoy the protection of the heavenly deities or an easy and secure existence in this life. Those who maintain faith with such a non-regressing spirit are true winners. This is one of the Daishonin’s most important points of guidance, illuminating the very heart of faith; it is an eternal guideline.

In this instalment, I’d like to focus mainly on the above passage and discuss the true essence of faith in Nichiren Buddhism.

The Heart of the Mentor-Disciple Relationship

In this passage, the Daishonin makes himself and his followers the subject, stating at the outset: “I and my disciples. . .” (WND-1, p. 283)
As we have seen so far in “The Opening of the Eyes,” the Daishonin indicates that he is (1) the “true votary of the Lotus Sutra” who battles the fundamental evil of slander of the Law, (2) the “pillar of Japan” who forestalls the loss of the correct teaching and the ruin of the nation, and (3) the “Buddha of the Latter Day” who illuminates the darkness of the age long into the distant future by revealing the supreme Law for the enlightenment of all people.

Ready to brave all consequences, he declares his resolve: “This I will state. Let the gods forsake me. Let all persecutions assail me. Still I will give my life for the sake of the Law”. (WND-1, p. 280) Then, with an indomitable lion’s roar, he makes the powerful pledge: “I will be the pillar of Japan. I will be the eyes of Japan. I will be the great ship of Japan. This is my vow, and I will never forsake it!” (WND-1, pp. 280–81) Here, he reveals the core of his own spirit.

While these passages constitute declarations of the Daishonin’s personal resolve and commitment, the intent of the passage “I and my disciples. . .” (WND-1, p. 283) is clearly to underscore the importance of having faith that responds to the spirit of the mentor, the Daishonin. It is as if he were saying: “Follow my example! Cast aside your doubts and laments, as befits cubs of the lion king! Don’t foolishly discard your faith at the crucial moment!”

The Daishonin indicates that his true disciples are those who, sharing his resolve, stand up to struggle alongside him and work energetically for kosen-rufu. All who become genuine “disciples of Nichiren” (cf. WND-1, p. 385) by making the Daishonin’s spirit and commitment their own – no matter who they are – have in fact already opened wide the path to attaining Buddhahood. And, as long as they follow this path to the end, they will attain Buddhahood “as a matter of course”. (WND-1, p. 283)

The ultimate teaching expounded by all Buddhas reveals that all living beings possess the life-state of Buddhahood. The Lotus Sutra also clearly states that Buddhas fulfil the purpose of their appearance in the world by opening for all living beings the door to the Buddha wisdom that lies dormant in their lives, showing it to them, causing them to awaken to it, and guiding them to enter its path (cf. LS2, p. 31) ^[1] – in other words, enabling all to attain enlightenment. The essence of this ultimate teaching of the Buddhas is to help everyone actualise the same great enlightenment that they have achieved. That is why Buddhism is at all times concerned with raising disciples who will exert themselves in faith and practice with the same spirit as the mentor. Buddhism is none other than a philosophy of mentor and disciple.

And the spirit of this philosophy of mentor and disciple truly comes to life only when the disciples’ hearts blaze with the same bright spiritual flame evinced by the Daishonin, who proclaimed: “Let the gods forsake me. Let all persecutions assail me. Still I will give my life for the sake of the Law.” (WND-1, p. 280)

In that sense, the Daishonin’s focus on “I and my disciples” in this passage can also be read as a call for the emergence of ranks of capable successors who will continue his struggle.

Selfless Dedication Is the Essence of the Mentor-Disciple Bond

Every time I read this passage, the phrase “I and my disciples” stands out vividly with a golden brilliance.

 
It is often the case that religious leaders address or direct their followers in a unilateral manner, uttering only: “My disciples...” However, the Daishonin says: “I and my disciples.” His attitude to include himself in his instructions to his disciples is imbued with the Buddhist spirit of unity of mentor and disciple.

And the backbone of this relationship is the spirit of “not begrudging one’s life,” or selfless dedication. Because the mentor Nichiren Daishonin himself does not begrudge his life in propagating the Law, he is qualified to be a leader of the people in terms of opening the path of Buddhism to all. Similarly, in order for his disciples to spread the Law in their capacity as disciples, they must actively struggle for that cause with the same selfless dedication as their mentor.

The Daishonin teaches this in the following passage:

Of course, the Daishonin made this statement while in the midst of life-threatening persecution. Looking at more recent times, we must not forget that during the Second World War the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai (Society for Value-Creating Education, forerunner of the Soka Gakkai) ^[2] suffered persecution at the hands of the Japanese militarist authorities. The Gakkai’s top leaders were arrested and imprisoned. All of them except Tsunesaburo Makiguchi and Josei Toda, the first and second presidents, turned their backs on the Daishonin’s admonition and abandoned their faith, caving in to government pressure.

While in prison, Mr Toda wrote in a letter to his family: “Do not doubt that the heavenly deities, the Buddhas, and the Buddhist gods will protect you. They will! Don’t lament that you do not enjoy ease and security in this life.” His words embody the essence of “The Opening of the Eyes.”

How should we live out our lives as human beings and Buddhists? Let us always remember that it is only through faith – through dedicating ourselves to the supreme Law and striving for Buddhism with a selfless, ungrudging spirit – that we can truly forge our lives and establish the indestructible state of Buddhahood.

Gaining Buddhahood without Seeking It

In the passage I cited at the beginning, the Daishonin says that even if we face many difficulties, as long as we persevere undefeated and remain steadfast in our faith, then the benefit of attaining Buddhahood will naturally come to us of itself. This is termed “gaining Buddhahood without seeking it.” ^[3]

Why should we be able to attain Buddhahood even if we do not seek it? Firstly, it is because the lives of all living beings are inherently entities of Myoho-renge-kyo (the Mystic Law). And secondly, it is because our strong faith causes the limitless functions of Myoho-renge-kyo that reside within our lives to manifest without impediment. When Myoho-renge-kyo comes to function freely in our lives, we attain the life-state of Buddhahood. The infinite power of the Mystic Law begins to operate unhindered and expresses itself as various human powers or capacities. These include, for example, the courage to stand up alone, the strength to persevere, the wisdom to surmount adversity, and concern and compassion for others. Qualities such as these, which are described in the sutra as attributes of the Buddha’s life, manifest in appropriate form as needed. To reiterate, attaining Buddhahood means being able to freely call forth the power of the Mystic Law from our lives in the form of various human powers or capacities.

It is important to be aware that what prevents the power of the Mystic Law from manifesting in our lives is actually the fundamental illusion or darkness that resides within us. “Illusion” here means basic ignorance of the Mystic Law. This ignorance causes people to be lost and deluded, and ruled by negative impulses; it is the root source of all unhappiness and suffering.

Accordingly, when we become awakened to the Mystic Law, this illusion or darkness instantly vanishes. To employ a simile, the Mystic Law is like the sun, while illusion is like dark clouds obstructing it. When the dark clouds clear, bright sunshine streams down. When we break through fundamental darkness, the power of the Mystic Law is immediately activated, and manifests as various kinds of benefit and value-creative functions. Such diverse benefit and value derive from the workings of the “Law of the lotus, or renge” (cf. WND-1, p. 425) – the principle of the simultaneity of cause and effect.

Therefore, while it is true that all living beings are entities of the Mystic Law whose lives are inherently endowed with the world of Buddhahood, unless we ourselves strive in earnest to dispel the obstructing clouds of fundamental darkness, the world of Buddhahood will not actually manifest in our lives. This is not something that we can hope to achieve if we are halfhearted, simply going through the motions of chanting daimoku. Much less will it be achieved by having priests chant for us instead! It is up to each person who chants daimoku to wage an individual struggle to dispel the darkness in their lives. Because this darkness comprises inner delusion, the struggle to defeat it must be waged within. In a word, this struggle means persevering in faith.

Based on the Lotus Sutra, which reveals the Buddha’s true enlightenment, the Daishonin discovered the workings of the fundamental Law of Myoho-renge-kyo in his own life; he then went on to confirm and prove the power of the Mystic Law through his own struggles. For us to freely manifest these workings of the Law in our own lives, we need to chant with the same mind and attitude as the Daishonin. In other words, our daimoku must be based on faith, the spirit to battle darkness or illusion. The daimoku that the Daishonin spread could be described as “fighting daimoku”.

Illusion manifests in various forms – as doubt, anxiety, earthly desires and so on. The power to break through illusion is none other than faith or belief. The Daishonin says: “Belief means to be without doubt.” (OTT, p. 54)  ^[4] He also states: “The single word ‘belief’ is the sharp sword with which one confronts and overcomes fundamental darkness or ignorance” (OTT, 119–20). Belief is a sharp sword. Therefore, battling devilish functions must also essentially be an intense struggle against darkness or ignorance. We are combating devilish forces that obstruct kosen-rufu. This struggle is also fundamentally a struggle against illusion. Confronting various difficulties that occur in life is also in essence a struggle against illusion.

If we should lose our faith or belief in the Mystic Law – that is to say, if we lose the conviction that we can definitely become happy and attain Buddhahood along with the desire to accomplish kosen-rufu without fail – then we will also be defeated by hardships in life and by obstacles and devilish functions on the path to kosen-rufu.

In “The Opening of the Eyes,” the Daishonin says that we must not succumb to doubt and pessimism. Both are manifestations of illusion. A clear illustration of the significance of faith that conquers illusion is provided by the Nirvana Sutra’s parable of the poor woman who gives up her life to protect her child, ^[5] which the Daishonin cites in this treatise.

The Parable of the Poor Woman in the Nirvana Sutra

The Nirvana Sutra states:

The parable teaches that the poor woman was able to transform her state of life through the power of her strong compassion to try to protect her child even at the cost of her own life.

To us today, the mother’s predicament and the fate of her and her child may seem very sad and tragic. This is especially so since Buddhism exists to enable all mothers and children to become happy. Moreover, from our perspective as practitioners of the Mystic Law, attaining Buddhahood and establishing a state of absolute happiness is something assured to us in this lifetime. In that sense, this parable in the Nirvana Sutra reflects a number of basic assumptions that differ from those of Nichiren Buddhism. Why then does the Daishonin cite this tale in “The Opening of the Eyes”? It is most likely because of the vital message contained in Shakyamuni’s remarks at the end.

Shakyamuni gives guidance to his disciples, telling them in effect that they must defend the correct teaching as resolutely and selflessly as this mother protected her child (cf. WND-1, p. 282). The message is that the path to attaining Buddhahood lies in faith that is committed to steadfastly protecting the Law, no matter what – in other words, the selfless spirit of faith of “not begrudging one’s life” and of “caring nothing for one’s own life” taught in the Lotus Sutra (cf. LS13, pp. 191–94). In terms of our practice, however, “not begrudging or caring for one’s life” does not mean literally throwing away our lives; it simply means thoroughly dedicating ourselves to the Law.

The “Jewel” of Three Thousand Realms in a Single Moment of Life

In this writing, the Daishonin succinctly describes the principle of attaining Buddhahood conveyed through this parable of the poor woman as the “jewel that is the doctrine of three thousand realms in a single moment of life.” (WND-1, p. 283)
Let’s briefly go over the main points of the Daishonin’s explanation in “The Opening of the Eyes.” The Daishonin sums up the essential message of this parable as follows:

Why is the poor woman reborn in the Brahma heaven without seeking it? The Daishonin offers two explanations. First, it is because her “concentrating on one thing” is similar to the Buddhist practice of concentration. Second, it is because her “thinking of nothing but her child” is comparable to Buddhist compassion.

“Concentrating on one thing” means focusing one’s mind on a single objective, or concentrating one’s mind. The ultimate expression of this is the idea of exerting infinite eons of effort in a single life-moment. When we practise with such concentrated effort, we can manifest the limitless life-state of the Buddha eternally endowed with the three bodies. ^[7]

The Daishonin says that the doctrines for attaining Buddhahood expounded in various other sutras and schools – such as the Flower Garland doctrine of the phenomenal world as created by the mind alone, the eight negations of the Three Treatises school, the Consciousness-Only doctrine of the Dharma Characteristics school, and the True Word school’s meditation on five elements of the universe – are not “jewels” but merely “yellow stones”, ^[8] and that one cannot attain enlightenment by these means. The Daishonin explains that only the “jewel that is the doctrine of three thousand realms in a single moment of life” in the Lotus Sutra is the path to Buddhahood (cf. WND-1, p. 283).

Here, on one level, the “jewel that is the doctrine of three thousand realms in a single moment of life” may be taken to indicate the condition of simultaneity of cause and effect that we can realize in our lives through our concentrated prayer or mind of faith. It is a condition in which the nine worlds (cause) and the world of Buddhahood (effect) exist simultaneously in a single moment of life. The Daishonin likens such a state to a “jewel” because it embodies the mutual possession of the Ten Worlds and three thousand realms, and shines with beautiful gem-like brilliance. The essence of such a state of life is none other than strong faith in Myoho-renge-kyo (the Mystic Law). Our concentrated prayer manifests as a jewel that contains Buddhahood.

In some instances, the doctrines for attaining Buddhahood put forward by various other sutras and advanced by different schools are little more than simply ways of viewing the world, and limit themselves to shallow self-affirmations. In other instances, they teach the importance of extinguishing illusion, but tend toward something like the Hinayana teaching of eradicating earthly desires by “reducing the body to ashes and annihilating consciousness”. ^[9] In neither case do these doctrines have any semblance to the “jewel that is the doctrine of three thousand realms in a single moment of life”.

The Daishonin concludes his discussion of the parable of the poor woman by citing once more the Nirvana Sutra passage: “Although they do not seek emancipation, emancipation will come of itself.” (WND-1, p. 283) In other words, one naturally arrives at enlightenment even without seeking it.

Don’t Forget to Battle Illusion “at the Crucial Moment”

As the Daishonin indicates when he says, “If we do not harbour doubts in our hearts, we will as a matter of course attain Buddhahood,” (WND-1, p. 283) we can only break through the darkness of doubt and pessimism, and bring forth the power of Myoho-renge-kyo (the Mystic Law) in our lives through resolute faith.

However, the power of illusion is also truly stubborn and deep-rooted. At the precise moment when we need to battle illusion, it creeps into our hearts and invades our lives. The Daishonin admonishes against the folly of allowing this to happen, saying: “Foolish men are likely to forget the promises they have made when the crucial moment comes.” (WND-1, p. 283)

To harbour doubt and disbelief and turn away from the correct teaching at the very time when we should arouse strong faith is foolish indeed. The Daishonin’s words seem to ring with the impassioned cry: “This is a chance to make great causes for attaining Buddhahood! Everlasting happiness lies on the other side of this momentous challenge!”

No matter what happens we must not give in to doubt, we must not be discouraged. Those who possess such a robust spirit will not fear anything.

There have been many instances in the history of the Soka Gakkai when we have faced enormous obstacles – such as when President Makiguchi was imprisoned during the war, when President Toda’s business enterprises fell into dire straits in the postwar period, and when we were attacked by the three powerful enemies embodied by the priesthood and others. Our true worth and mettle as disciples and practitioners of the Daishonin’s Buddhism are revealed in what we do and how we act at such times.

 
We absolutely must never forget that Buddhahood shines in the faith of those who fight steadfastly at the crucial moment. This is one of the principal conclusions of “The Opening of the Eyes”. (SGI Newsletter No 6594, 5 October 2005)


b) SGI President Ikeda’s Editorial

Daimoku – A “Lion’s Roar” of Happiness and Victory

The daimoku of Nam-myoho-renge-kyo serves as the hope-filled driving force for all people to realize their deepest wish of making the most of each and every day and leading a worthwhile and victorious life while brimming with the joy of being alive.

The Record of the Orally Transmitted Teachings states: “Great joy [is what] one experiences when one understands for the first time that one’s mind from the very beginning has been the Buddha. Nam-myoho-renge-kyo is the greatest of all joys” (OTT, pp. 211–12).

The resonant chanting of daimoku is a supreme paean to human dignity and life, proclaiming that we ourselves are entities of Nam-myoho-renge-kyo. It is an invincible roar that fills our being with the immeasurable and unlimited power of the Buddha and the Law.

My mentor Josei Toda, who awakened to the essence of the Mystic Law during his imprisonment at the hands of the Japanese militarist authorities, gave the following guidance: “You must have this conviction: ‘I chanted with all my heart this morning. I’m going to do so again tonight. And I can chant right now. Therefore, whatever happens, I know everything will be all right.’ Chanting wholeheartedly through to the very end is the quintessential way to achieve the best possible outcome in all things.”

According to Indian philosopher Dr Lokesh Chandra, with whom I have conducted a dialogue, Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) included Nam-myoho-renge-kyo in the prayers of his ashram. Gandhi, he said, recognized daimoku as the ultimate expression of the cosmic power that resides within each of us and a manifestation of life resonating with the ultimate rhythm of the universe.

In a letter to Gandhi, the French author Romain Rolland (1866–1944) wrote: “True prayer is [that] which, like yours, is offered in the midst of action.” Prayer leads to action. ^[10] Prayer is the engine.

When Mr Toda’s businesses were facing their direst crisis, I chanted resolutely to support my mentor and to build a new Soka Gakkai. I chanted and took action; took action and chanted. I prayed and exerted myself with all my being to transform the situation. There is no weapon more powerful than daimoku.

As Mr Toda’s disciple, I strove all out in the spirit that the Daishonin describes as “diligent practice, exhausting the pains and trials of millions of kalpas in a single moment of life” (cf. OTT, p. 214). Through all these efforts, I was finally able to present my mentor with the accomplishment of total victory.

*

“Nam-myoho-renge-kyo is like the roar of a lion. What sickness can therefore be an obstacle?” (WND-1, p. 412), writes the Daishonin. Whenever you face an obstacle or challenge in life, vigorously set to chanting daimoku until it has been surmounted. Daimoku is a lion’s roar. It is the fundamental means for vanquishing all devilish functions and eradicating all evil.

Speaking of the tremendous power of the Mystic Law to transform poison into medicine, Mr Toda declared: “We are the Bodhisattvas of the Earth and the followers of the Daishonin. We were born into this world as people who undergo various sufferings in order to demonstrate just how happy we can become through the power of the Mystic Law. Faith means leading a wonderful and meaningful life.”

In the history of the Soka Gakkai, in particular, we must never forget how the power of the earnest daimoku of our women’s and young women’s division members has enabled us to overcome innumerable trials and tribulations.

 
Nichiren Daishonin writes: “But no matter how others may chant Nam-myoho- renge-kyo, if they are persons who show enmity toward Nichiren, then without fail they will fall into the hell of incessant suffering. And then, after countless kalpas have passed, they will become Nichiren’s disciples and will succeed in attaining Buddhahood.” (WND-2, p. 457) This applies equally to those who seek to harm the Soka Gakkai, which practices in the true lineage of the Daishonin.

*

Speaking to a pioneering member practising alone in the early days of the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai (lit. Value-creating Education Society; forerunner of the Soka Gakkai), founding president Tsunesaburo Makiguchi said: “When the Daishonin first chanted Nam-myoho-renge-kyo, he was completely alone. The fact that you are the only one in your community to chant Nam-myoho-renge-kyo right now means that – in accord with the principle of bodhisattvas emerging from the earth – a second, and a third, and then a hundred others and more, all sharing the mission for kosen-rufu, will eventually appear.” Here we find the eternal formula for increasing our ranks of capable people in the realm of faith.

In Moscow thirty-three years ago (in 1974), at the height of the Cold War, I said to those accompanying me: “Let’s imbue the rich earth of Mother Russia with our daimoku. Someday, a steady stream of bodhisattvas will emerge from the earth here, too.” And that is exactly what has happened, and will continue to happen into the future.
Dr Lou Marinoff, founding president of the American Philosophical Practitioners Association (APPA), with whom I have engaged in dialogue, said he was struck by the powerful sound of SGI members chanting Nam-myoho-renge-kyo, a practice that, he noted, was open to all people and served as a means for attuning one’s life with the dynamic rhythm of the universe.

Those who base their lives on chanting Nam-myoho-renge-kyo are philosophers possessing complete inner freedom, shining with a wisdom and vitality that are one with the universe and creating value in the promotion of peace and justice.
Mahatma Gandhi declared: “Prayer from the heart can achieve what nothing else can in the world.”

[1] The “Expedient Means” (second) chapter of the Lotus Sutra states: “The Buddhas, the World-Honored Ones, wish to open the door of Buddha wisdom to all living beings, to allow them to attain purity. That is why they appear in the world. They wish to show the Buddha wisdom to living beings, and therefore they appear in the world. They wish to cause living beings to awaken to the Buddha wisdom, and therefore they appear in the world. They wish to induce living beings to enter the path of Buddha wisdom, and therefore they appear in the world. Shariputra, this is the one great reason for which the Buddhas appear in the world” (LS2, p. 31).

[2] Soka Kyoiku Gakkai (Value-Creating Education Society): An association founded by Tsunesaburo Makiguchi and Josei Toda in 1930 for educators sympathetic to Makiguchi’s theories of value-creating education. It gradually developed into an organization dedicated to promoting the practice and spread of Nichiren Buddhism. During World War II, the Japanese militarist authorities cracked down on the organization as part of efforts to strengthen their ideological control over the population. A total of twenty-one leaders of the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai, including Makiguchi and Toda, were arrested in 1943. While the others all eventually bowed to the government’s demands, Makiguchi and Toda refused to compromise their beliefs. Makiguchi died in prison in November 1944. Toda was released in July 1945, and dedicated the rest of his life to reconstructing the organization, which he renamed the Soka Gakkai (Value-Creating Society).

[3] Gaining Buddhahood without seeking it: This comes from a passage in the “Belief and Understanding” (fourth) chapter of the Lotus Sutra. The chapter describes how Mahakashyapa and the other great voice-hearers, after hearing Shakyamuni expound the replacement of the three vehicles with the one vehicle, understand that they can in fact attain Buddhahood, even though they had previously been deemed incapable of doing so. Joyfully they exclaim: “This cluster of unsurpassed jewels / has come to us unsought” (LS4, p. 87).

[4] “Belief means to be without doubt”: This is a passage from T’ien-t’ai’s The Words and Phrases of the Lotus Sutra. Describing the mind of someone at the first stage of faith – that is, the stage of believing in and understanding the Lotus Sutra even for a moment” – it says: “Belief means to be without doubt. Clear comprehension is called understanding.”

[5] Nirvana Sutra: Any of the sutras either recording the teachings that Shakyamuni Buddha expounded immediately before his death or describing the events surrounding his death, or entry into nirvana. There are both Mahayana and Hinayana Nirvana sutras in Chinese translation. The parable of the poor woman that the Daishonin cites in “The Opening of the Eyes” is found in the Mahayana text, the Mahaparinirvana Sutra.

[6] Brahma heaven: Buddhist texts describe the existence of many different heavens, into which people were thought to be reborn depending on the good fortune they had created. The Brahma heaven is the first and lowest of the four meditation heavens in the world of form above Mount Sumeru.[1] In The Record of the Orally Transmitted Teachings, the Daishonin states: “If in a single moment of life we exhaust the pains and trials of millions of kalpas, then instant after instant there will arise in us the three Buddha bodies with which we are eternally endowed. Nam-myoho-renge-kyo is just such a ‘diligent’ practice” (OTT, p. 214). The three bodies of the Buddha refer to the Dharma body, the reward body, and the

manifested body. The Dharma body is the fundamental truth, or Law, to which a Buddha is enlightened. The reward body is the wisdom to perceive the Law. And the manifested body is the compassionate actions the Buddha carries out to lead people to happiness.

[7] Yellow stones: This means either literally yellow-colored stones, or it may refer to calcite. In either case, it indicates something of lesser value compared to gold or precious gems.

[8] Reducing the body to ashes and annihilating consciousness: A reference to the Hinayana doctrine asserting that one can attain nirvana, escaping from the sufferings of endless cycle of birth and death, only upon extinguishing one’s body and mind, which are deemed to be the sources of earthly desires, illusions, and sufferings.

[9] Romain Rolland and Mohandas Gandhi, Romain Rolland and Gandhi: Correspondence (New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1976), p. 266.

[10] Arun and Sunanda Gandhi, M. K. Gandhi’s Wit and Wisdom (Memphis, Tennessee: M. K. Gandhi Institute for Nonviolence, n.d.), n.p.